By which, to whom, whereby, most of whom — and “which” pointing back to a whole clause.
In conversation, relative clauses are short and prepositions drift to the end: “the tool we rely on”. In reports, articles and formal emails, the same ideas are packed differently: “the tool on which we rely”. This lesson is about that formal toolkit — and about knowing when not to use it.
1. Which version sounds more like a formal report?
2. In “Sales fell by 12%, which surprised the board”, what does “which” refer to?
3. Which is correct?
Four quick questions. This isn't graded harshly — it just shows us where to focus.
1. This is the framework ___ all future projects will be evaluated.
2. The director, ___ the complaint was addressed, did not respond.
3. The supplier missed three deadlines, ___ ultimately cost it the contract.
4. The survey was sent to 400 employees, ___ responded.
Formal relative clauses rely on four patterns: a preposition + which for things and processes, a preposition + whom for people, a sentence-level which that comments on a whole clause, and a quantifier + of whom / of which to talk about part of a group. Browse each, then Quick check: decide which pattern the gap needs.
— Click either cell to see another example.
Hover over (or tap) each version to see where it fits.
Most large employers now use software to screen job applications before a human ever reads them. The process by which a CV is ranked is rarely explained to candidates, which has led to growing concern about fairness. Typically, the software compares each application against a profile of previous successful hires — a method that sounds objective but can quietly reproduce old biases.
A widely reported case illustrates the risk. One technology company discovered that its system penalised CVs containing the word “women's”, as in “captain of the women's chess club”. The model had been trained on ten years of data, the majority of which came from male applicants, and it had learned to treat that pattern as a sign of success. The engineers to whom the problem was reported tried to correct it, but they could not guarantee that other, less visible signals had been removed, at which point the project was abandoned.
Regulators are now responding. Several jurisdictions have introduced rules whereby employers must disclose when automated tools are used and allow candidates to request a human review. Critics argue that disclosure alone is insufficient: a candidate cannot challenge criteria of which they are unaware. Supporters of the technology counter that human recruiters are hardly free of bias themselves. The real question, perhaps, is not whether algorithms should be used, but whether they are audited as rigorously as the people they replace.
Tap a highlighted word for pronunciation, meaning and an example. With grammar highlighting on, tap a highlighted phrase to see why that form was used.
1. What is the main concern about hiring algorithms, according to the first paragraph?
2. Why did the technology company's system penalise certain CVs?
3. What is the critics' argument about disclosure rules?
All nine words from the text — mixed formats.
1. To “screen” job applications means to…
2. An “objective” method is…
3. “Biases” are…
4. If rules are “insufficient”, they are…
5. If something is “audited”, it is…
1. A widely reported case the risk very clearly.
2. The system CVs containing certain words.
3. Employers must when automated tools are used.
4. You cannot a decision if you don't know how it was made.
Grammar focus — formal relative pronouns (write one or two words)
1. This is the principle on the entire policy is based.
2. The candidate, to the offer was made, declined it.
3. The company introduced a scheme employees can work four longer days instead of five.
4. We interviewed six applicants, none of had the required licence.
5. Revenue doubled in two years, few analysts had predicted.
6. The client may cancel the order, in case we will issue a full refund.
One word is wrong in each sentence. Tap it.
Tap the chips in the right order. Three rounds.
Describe a process or system at your workplace or university (how people are hired, how budgets are approved, how grades are appealed) for one minute, in a formal register. Use at least one “by which / under which”, one “whereby” and one sentence-level “which”.
Anna, an HR manager, is preparing a policy document with Tomasz, a data analyst, about the company's use of screening software.
1. Where does Tomasz think bias can creep in?
2. What problem does Tomasz point out about the review team?
3. What is Tomasz's final advice?
1. The committee rejected the proposal, ___ surprised many observers.
2. These are the standards ___ all suppliers must comply.
3. She thanked the mentors, without ___ the project would have failed.
4. The firm acquired three start-ups, ___ has since been closed down.
5. A system ___ patients can book appointments online was introduced last year.
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